2.4.3 Field distribution The depletion phase 4 1.2.4. It is also practiced in various horticultural industries such as citrus, stone fruit and tomatoes. Also in this category are the surface irrigation systems like check-basins which irrigate individual trees in an orchard, for example. The water can take a considerable period of time to reach the other end, meaning water has been infiltrating for a longer period of time at the top end of the field. The time and space references shown in Figure 1 are relatively standard. Sprinkler irrigation is application of water under pressure as simulated rain. The process of surface irrigation can be described using four phases. The soil acts as the growing medium in which water is stored and the conveyance medium over which water flows as it spreads and infiltrates. 2.4 Surface irrigation As the inflow ceases the water will continue to runoff and infiltrate until the entire field is drained. It is useful to note here that in observing surface irrigation one may not always observe a ponding, depletion or recession phase. The four phases of surface irrigation 3 1.2.1. Surface irrigation is where water is applied and distributed over the soil surface by gravity. [5] The effectiveness of surge irrigation is soil type dependent; for example, many clay soils experience a rapid sealing behaviour under continuous flow and therefore surge irrigation offers little benefit.[1]. When an irrigation project has been designed for either small basins or furrows and borders, the capacity of control and outlet structures may not be large enough to improve basins. Time is cumulative since the beginning of the irrigation, distance is referenced to the point water enters the field. Surface irrigation involves movement of water as shallow flow over planes or in channels. Field distribution and spreading can also be through portable pipelines running along the surfaces or permanent pipelines running underground. Volume balance methods compare the applied volume to surface and subsurface storage volumes in order to calculate parameters such as infiltration rate or the rate of water advance down the field. Elevated concrete channel in Iran, Figure 9. Each surface system has unique advantages and disadvantages depending on such factors as were listed earlier like: (1) initial cost; (2) size and shape of fields; (3) soil characteristics; (4) nature and availability of the water supply; (5) climate; (6) cropping patterns; (7) social preferences and structures; (8) historical experiences; and (9) influences external to the surface irrigation system. Figure 5 shows two typical furrow irrigated conditions. Some of the more common flow control structures for open channels are shown in Figure 10. 2.2.2 Border irrigation [1] This is also a method of surface irrigation. 18 - 34 . Surface irrigation is mainly divided in basin, border, and furrow systems. Slip-form concrete lining in the USA. It is not the intent of this guide to be comprehensive with regard to the selection and design of these structures since other sources are available, but it is worthwhile to note some of these structures by way of presenting a larger view of surface irrigation. for optimal performance Small land holdings are generally not subject to the array of surface irrigation practices of the large commercial farming systems. 2.2.3 Furrow irrigation 2. The higher inflow reaches the end of the field sooner but it increases both the duration and the magnitude of the runoff. There are three types of Surface Irrigation: Level Basin Irrigation, furrow irrigation, and Border Strip Irrigation. The management of water in the field channels involves flow measurement, sediment and debris removal, divisions, checks, drop-energy dissipators, and water level regulators. For practical purposes, there may not be a depletion phase and recession can be ignored. Probably the most interesting evolution in surface irrigation so far as this guide is concerned is the development and application of microcomputers and programmable calculators to the design and operation of surface irrigation systems. In: Annual Report 1988, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. Thus, surface irrigation may appear in several configurations and operate under several regimes. 2.3 Requirements In surface irrigation events, there are four phases i.e. The advance phase 3 1.2.2. Land preparation is largely a land grading problem which will be discussed in Section 5. Surface Irrigation is an unchanged process and it is older than its recognition. Increasing the advance rate not only improves the uniformity but also reduces the total volume of water required to complete the irrigation. It is possible to improve the performance of most surface . The discharge per unit width of the field is substantially reduced and topographical variations can be more severe. The surface irrigation system is one component of a much larger network of facilities diverting and delivering water to farmlands. Determination of optimum stream size and … What methods are used? The period of time between the end of the advance phase and the shut-off of the inflow is termed the wetting, ponding or storage phase. Surface Irrigation Process. Level basin irrigation has historically been used in small areas having level surfaces that are surrounded by earth banks. There are three options available to solve this problem, at least partially: (1) dyke the downstream end to prevent runoff as in basin irrigation; (2) reduce the inflow discharge to a rate more closely approximating the cumulative infiltration along the field following the advance phase, a practice termed 'cutback'; or (3) select a discharge which minimizes the sum of deep percolation and tailwater losses, i.e., optimize the field inflow regime. Here, we will not detail out sub surface irrigation methods. Estimation of the infiltration rate using the actual furrow method 7 1.3.3. A flow is introduced at one edge of the field and covers the field gradually. In this configuration, the head ditch is divided into a series of level bays which are differentiated by a small change in elevation. The WinSRFR program, Head ditch outlets for borders and basins (after Kraatz and Mahajan, FAO, 1975). Surface irrigation is often referred to as flood irrigation, implying that the water distribution is uncontrolled and therefore, inherently inefficient. The term 'surface irrigation' refers to a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is distributed over the field by overland flow. Today in the graduate and undergraduate study of surface irrigation engineering, microcomputer and programmable calculator utilization is, or should be, common practice. Surface irrigation methods are the oldest, and are those that use the soil surface to conduct and infiltrate the applied water. The changes in the lesser-developed and developing countries are less dramatic. The classification of surface methods is perhaps somewhat arbitrary in technical literature. Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field surface by channelling the flow along the primary direction of the field using 'furrows,' 'creases,' or 'corrugations'. Furrows provide the irrigator more opportunity to manage irrigations toward higher efficiencies as field conditions change for each irrigation throughout a season. Surface irrigation has evolved into an extensive array of configurations which can be broadly classified as: (1) basin irrigation; (2) border irrigation; (3) furrow irrigation; and (4) uncontrolled flooding. 1984; Walker & Skogerboe 1987; Alazba 1999). Lining materials include slip-form cast-in-place, or prefabricated concrete (Figure 9), shotcrete or gunite, asphalt, surface and buried plastic or rubber membranes, and compacted earth. 2. A volume balance approach to determine the parameters of the Kostiakov or modified Kostiakov infiltration equations in border and furrow irrigation is presented. Figure 5. Most surface irrigation systems derive their water supplies from canal systems operated by public or semi-public irrigation departments, districts, or companies. The bays are typically longer and narrower compared to basin irrigation and are orientated to align lengthwise with the slope of the field. Surface irrigation systems are supported by a number of on- and off-farm structures which control and manage the flow and its energy. After the water reaches the end of the field it will either run-off or start to pond. The wetting and drying cycles reduce infiltration rates resulting in faster advance rates and higher uniformity[3] than continuous flow. Surface irrigation systems are best suited to soil with low to moderate infiltration capacities and land with relatively uniform terrain and slope less than 2 to 3 percent (Booher, 1974). Recession begins at that point and continues until the surface is drained. The crop is planted on the ridge between furrows which may contain a single row of plants or several rows in the case of a bed type system. Common surface irrigation systems used are rill irrigation, furrow or border irrigation. surface waters. Very large mechanized farming equipment has replaced animal-powered planting, cultivating and harvesting operations. Border strip, otherwise known as border check or bay irrigation could be considered as a hybrid of level basin and furrow irrigation. Typical irrigation system components (redrafted from USDA-SCS, 1967). 1967). The tailwater deep percolation trade-off can also be solved by collecting and recycling the runoff to improve surface irrigation performance. A very large number of causes of poor surface irrigation performance have been outlined in the technical literature. Thus, the system operates by moving the check-dam from bay to bay along the upper end of the field. The distinctive feature of furrow irrigation is that the flow into each furrow is independently set and controlled as opposed to furrowed borders and basins where the flow is set and controlled on a border by border or basin by basin basis. Surface water and groundwater monitoring and reporting programs are also likely to … This results in poor uniformity with high application at the top end with lower application at the bottom end. There are few crops and soils not amenable to basin irrigation, but it is generally favoured by moderate to slow intake soils, deep-rooted and closely spaced crops. structures. Water is applied to individual borders from small hand-dug checks from the field head ditch. A surface irrigation event composes of the four phases outlined below (Walker, 1989) and illustrated graphically in Figure 2. Reclamation of salt-affected soils is easily accomplished with basin irrigation and provision for drainage of surface runoff is unnecessary. The evaluation methods can be applied if desired, but the design techniques are not generally applicable nor need they be since the irrigation practices tend to be minimally managed. Water is applied to the first bay (usually the highest in elevation) and when the desired depth is applied water is permitted to drain back off that bay and flow to the next bay which is at a lower elevation than the first. Issues associated with surface irrigation. 2.1.1 Definition. Surface irrigation comes in three major types; level basin, furrow and border strip. Historically, the elements of an irrigation system have not functioned well as a system and the result has too often been very low project irrigation efficiencies. Two very recent additions to the efforts to control surface irrigation systems more effectively are the 'Surge Flow' system (Figure 6) developed at Utah State University, USA and the 'Cablegation' system developed at the US Department of Agriculture's Snake River Water Conservation Research Center in Kimberly, Idaho, USA. Furrows provide better on-farm water management flexibility under many surface irrigation conditions. A typical riser outlet, known as an alfalfa valve, is shown in Figure 13. Phase 2, then the irrigation water will flow out of the land. Surface irrigation (Figure 12.1) of secondary treated and disinfected effluent is permitted in NSW. Many basins are so small that precision equipment cannot work effectively. The period of time between the end of the advance phase and the shut-off of the inflow is termed the wetting, ponding or storage phase. to surface irrigation In the surface methods of irrigation, water is applied directly to the soil surface from a channel located at the . Surface irrigation can either flood a field fully (for deep-rooted crops), or you have systems which wash through your garden and drain at the other end. Basins can be served with less command area and field watercourses than can border and furrow systems because their level nature allows water applications from anywhere along the basin perimeter. On-farm water management structures (from Skogerboe and reuse, 2.4.2 The approach requires measured data from the advance phase, the postadvance (wetting) phase, or both, resulting in three different procedures to characterize infiltration. It may be furrowed or corrugated, have raised beds for the benefit of certain crops, but as long as the inflow is undirected and uncontrolled into these field modifications, it remains a basin. simplicity with which different phases of the irrigation could be described. For example, a basin or border system may be furrowed. Although surface irrigation is thousands of years old, the most significant advances have been made within the last decade. for optimal performance, 2.1 Introduction to surface The water is applied rapidly to the entire basin and is allowed to infiltrate. 6.3 SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS .- - A brief about surface and subsurface irrigation method is given in Unit 1. Furrows may range anywhere from less than 100 m to 2000 m long depending on the soil type, location and crop type. Followings are the surface irrigation advantages. Conveying water to the field requires similar structures to those found in major canal networks. During advance, the water moves down the channel. The field is divided into a number of bays or strips, each bay is separated by raised earth check banks (borders). For the purposes of describing the hydraulics of the surface flows, the drainage period is segregated into the depletion phase (vertical recession) and the recession phase (horizontal recession). In the developed and industrialized countries, land holdings have become as much as 10-20 times as large, and the number of farm families has dropped sharply. systems. ILRI, 1989, Effectiveness and Social/Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects: a Review. Microcomputers and programmable calculators provide several features for today's irrigation engineers and technicians. Each should be standardized for mass production and fabrication in the field by farmers and technicians. A basin is typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and rectangular configurations. To minimize deep percolation the advance phase should be completed as quickly as possible so that the intake opportunity time over the field will be uniform and then cut the inflow off when enough water has been added to refill the root zone. The advance and recession curves are therefore trajectories of the leading and receding edges of the surface flows and the period defined between the two curves at any distance is the time water is on the surface and therefore also the time water is infiltrating into the soil. 2.4.2 Phase 1, when the water dalirkan to land, there will be the addition of water on the surface of the land to flooding the entire surface of the land. Surface Irrigation Methods • Flooding • Borders • Basins • Furrows. For the complete system to work well, each must work conjunctively toward the common goal of promoting maximum on-farm production. When water is applied to the field, it 'advances' across the surface until the water extends over the entire area. Furrow irrigation configurations (after USDA-SCS, In traditional basins no water is permitted to drain from the field once it is irrigated. Figure 7. Basin irrigation has a number of limitations, two of which, already mentioned, are associated with soil crusting and crops that cannot accommodate inundation. The object of border strip irrigation is to advance a sheet of water down a narrow strip between low ridges or borders and to get the water into the soil as the sheet advances. Chapter 4 Surface Irrigation Part 623 NationalEngineeringHandbook (210–VI–NEH, September 2012) 4–v Figures Figure 4–1 Layout and function of irrigation system components 4–2 Figure 4–2 Basic phases of a surface irrigation event 4–3 Figure 4–3 Typical basin irrigation system in the Western United States 4… Irrigation scheduling is a theme covered separately by several publications such as the FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24 (Rev) by Doorenbos and Pruitt (FAO, 1977). 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